Hidden Worlds of Stellar Metamorphosis

 Stellar Metamorphosis is a model of star formation and planet formation discovered by Jeffrey Wolynski, with similar precursors going back to Oparin, Descartes and Leibniz. The basic concept of Stellar Metamorphosis is that stars eventually lose mass and cool down to become planets. All observed planets used to be stars.

The main sequence of stars starts out with big blue white stars that cool down to become small cooler red dwarfs, which cool to become brown dwarfs, which become gas giant planets, and so on, down to neptunes and terrestrial type planets. Although the hottest brightest stars are easiest for us to observe, they are the least common star type, lasting a relatively short amount of time before they cool down to become yellow stars. Yellow stars last longer than white stars, but will cool down to become longer lasting red stars, and so on. There are far more red dwarfs than white stars, it is estimated that there are far more brown dwarfs than red dwarfs. We should expect that there are far more gas giants than brown dwarfs, far more terrestrial type planets and moons than gas giants, and so on. 

The remains of terrestrial planets, ice dwarfs, moons and asteroids could last for many trillions of years. If so, we should expect that in a Universe which has been around longer than tens of billions of years, we should expect that these planets moons and their remains should be found in great abundance.

"It is nevertheless probable that there may be as many as 10⁹ stars [within a sphere of radius 3.09 · 10¹⁶ kilometres] but many of them may be extinct and dark, and nine-tenths of them though not all dark may be not bright enough to be seen by us at their actual distances. [...] Many of our stars, perhaps a great majority of them, may be dark bodies." - Lord Kelvin

There have been estimations of non-shining stars, so-called "dark bodies", which in modern times has developed into a theory of so-called "dark matter".. It is currently estimated that a significant proportion of the mass of galaxies is some missing component yet to be observed. Many popular theories consider dark matter to be some form of exotic non-baryonic matter particle with special powers that defy the known laws of physics. A more simple explanation is, as Kelvin proposed, that these are non-luminous stars.

There is a microlensing survey from 2011 which found that there may be as many as 100,000 rogue planets or nomad planets per standard luminous star, that is, planets which are not in orbit around shining stars. A quick back of the envelope calculation shows that this amount could account for the amount of missing mass expected from dark matter, depending on how massive these rogue planets are if they are in fact out there. 

Researchers Say Galaxy May Swarm with "Nomad Planets"

from Stanford University

from Stanford University

For every typical star in our galaxy, there may be up to 100,000 “nomad planets” not tied to any solar system, according to a new study by researchers at the Kavli Institute for Particle Physics and Cosmology (KIPAC), a joint institute of Stanford University and the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory.

https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/news/2012-02-23-researchers-say-galaxy-may-swarm-nomad-planets

Rogue planets or nomad planets are often visualized as random stray planets wandering around alone through the galaxy. But if Stellar Metamorphosis is correct, this strongly implies that groups of stars that cool down to become solar systems will cool down to become planetary systems without a shining host star. For example, in our solar system, once the Sun has cooled down, unless the planets shift into orbit around a new host star, what remains for some time will be a hostless planetary system. So we may be better off thinking of these thousands of planets as often being entire planetary systems. 

We can observed from comets, kuiper belt object, and globular star clusters that there is a tendency for orbits to move from a neat linear disc, to more of a spherical shell in various directions. This may be the same for these non-luminous planetary systems as they become more and more evolved.  It may be the case that larger systems of planets and planetary remains could provide the supporting mass for globular clusters to develop, which are expected to have a very high percentage of "dark matter" ( = dark bodies, hidden worlds), and in this same way, dwarf elliptical galaxies could have even more hidden worlds, as they are expected to have even more "dark matter". 

Conclaves:

If we imagine of progression of this type, it is not out of the question that some regions may have extremely compact with planets and planetary remains forming entire non-luminous galaxies, and beyond that, spanning vast areas forming huge spherical or elliptical conclaves ("hidden groups"). Spherical so called "cosmic voids" may be home to the highest density of hidden worlds, the biggest conclaves of them all.

White Dwarfs seem very planet-like

 

Core crystallisation in evolving white dwarf stars from a pile-up in the cooling sequence
Tremblay 2019 
https://arxiv.org/pdf/1908.00370

A Crystallizing White Dwarf in a Sirius-Like Quadruple System

Venner 2023

https://arxiv.org/pdf/2306.03140

Stellar Metamorphosis: Comment on Thousands Of Stars Turning Into Crystals Daniel Archer 

Archer 2019

 https://vixra.org/pdf/1901.0326v1.pdf

What if white dwarf stars are actually earth like planets Daniel Archer

Archer 2023

https://vixra.org/pdf/2310.0140v1.pdf

https://www.universetoday.com/161929/a-white-dwarf-is-starting-to-crystallize-into-diamond/

Metallicity of Host Stars for Exoplanets

 

Exoplanet Populations and their Dependence on Host Star Properties

Gijs D. Mulders
" Figure 1:Trends in the exoplanet population as function of stellar mass and metallicity, illustrating the different behavior of the giant planet population (large pink circles) and planets smaller than Neptune (small cyan circles). The location of the sun is indicated with a yellow star. The location of individual symbols is randomly generated, with the density of point corresponding to the exoplanet occurrence rate. Any resemblance between symbol locations and observed exoplanets is entirely coincidental. "

https://arxiv.org/html/1805.00023v2

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Massive stars are more likely to host fewer planets in general as compared to lower mass stars.

High metallicity stars stars are more likely to host giant planets, low metallicity high mass stars tend to host some giant planets. Low mass low metallicity stars typically don't host giant planets. 

hypothesis:  the metallicity of a host star is likely to be similar to the metallicity of the star the hosted planet evolved from. Low mass low metallicity stars are more likely to turn into smaller planets. High mass high metallicity stars are more likely to turn into larger planets.

This is, if it is the case that proto stars will evolve into main sequence stars of different masses and metallicities according to their environment. So for example, a proto star may evolve to become a yellow dwarf, or larger white star, or blue giant depending on how much mass it gains from the nebula it forms in and depending on metallicity. In some areas such as globular clusters and dwarf elliptical galaxies, main sequence stars are more likely to be less massive and lower metallicity.

( In the standard model, on the other hand, this correlation is attributed to core accretion effect. "It has been established that the increased occurrence of giant planets around high-metallicity stars arises because giant planet cores are more likely to form in disks with a larger amount of solids" ... 

("These trends, however, breaks down for planets smaller than Neptune, hereafter sub-Neptunes, which poses some urgent questions about the planet formation process. Why is the frequency of sub-Neptunes almost independent of stellar metallicity, even when the initial inventory of condensible solids must have varied by an order of magnitude? " )

Terminology suggestions for the lifecycle of a star

 

Ideas for replacing the terms birth, death and life of a star:

"Lifecycle" doesn't hold as much of a connotation of a living organism as "life". Birth can be called activation. (The growth or formation of a star and planet is an ongoing process of transformation and evolution, not just its "birth"). For death, the activity of a star or planet is extinguished, an extinction. Remains are "reborn" or reactivated / reformed into new stars.

( Not that the poetic language of life, birth, death etc. necessarily needs to be replaced.)

In this lecture,Dr. Michael Shilo Delay asked for suggestions to replace the terms life, death, birth, etc for stars and planets. I believe Jeffrey Wolynski has mentioned this before in videos too.

Planet Formation, Aging Stars p.1 - The Stars (wk 6.1) Dr. Michael Shilo Delay

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4u1LXHWWtr4&list=PLDyAuNyQ5Gj1X_jPu1GQGZQjMFQGfZozM&index=10

and for good measure, here is Daniel Archer's paper "Stellar Metamorphosis Obeys the Natural Law of Birth, Growth, Degradation and Rebirth, or a New Law!":

https://vixra.org/abs/2011.0128

TOI-187 system and Saturn and Uranus moons comparison

 

Hypothesis: here are three examples of what started out as an ensemble of 6 related stars. Three different kindred sextets. Uranus has one missing moon, which is now broken into smaller pieces, found as irregular moons nearby. A host star goes on the left for the TOI-187 exoplanet system, former host star goes on the left for Saturn and Uranus moons. You can see how they are smaller on the left from proximity to the host star.

In each ensemble, all 6 star members could have ignited at roughly the same exact time. The energy from a pair igniting can affect nearby pairs, and gravity will keep partners close by for the most part.

Stars form in pairs like peas in a pod, with the closest ones most commonly grouping together as gravitationally bound pairs of pairs, or three pairs, or sometimes four. This is not to say we should only expect to ever see quartets, sextets and octets, but they are very common in systems that we have observed, and quartets and sextets are common in our solar system. For larger more compact star clusters there could be much larger related ensembles.

Before dry land - pre-Elysian environments

 On planets like Earth that were completely covered in water at an earlier stage, we may expect that life developed on a wide variety of environments before the dry land of the crust first appeared above the surface of water.

Besides in the water itself, life could have developed on and beneath the sea floor, in sea caves with portions that are not covered in water, on ice bergs, ice shells like that of Europa, glacial ice caves, floating islands of plants or "pumice rafts",  and so on. 

When interpreting ancient life forms and previous geological ages, we should be cautious about jumping to conclusions about lifeforms that may have lived in a dry terrestrial environment. Just because an organism can dig or walk or thrives in an environment that is not fully aquatic does not necessarily mean that an exposed dry surface of the continental crust existed yet.

An animal with lungs that breathes air does not require dry land masses yet- a lungfish can swim up to the surface of the water without any dry land exposed to breathe the air of the atmosphere. The existence of animals with lungs and legs do not mean dry land was necessarily present yet. 

There is an assumption in the standard model that dry land was there all along for animals to just walk onto. This assumption is no longer supported and geology and biology must take into account Wolynski's Elysium transition of when dry land first appeared on the Earth.

Also worth noting here: it is hypothesize that in the ice shell of Europa, we may find something like isolated pockets of water similar to lakes and rivers embedded in the surface of the ice. This is another interesting type of environment to consider for the development of life. Earth, for example, may have gone through an ice-world stage where the outer surface of the worldwide ocean was frozen over.

A floating island is a mass of floating aquatic plants, mud, and peat ranging in thickness from several centimeters to a few meters. Sometimes referred to as tussocks, floatons, or suds, floating islands are found in many parts of the world. 

A pumice raft is a floating raft of pumice created by some eruptions of submarine volcanoes or coastal subaerial volcanoes.

Pumice rafts have unique characteristics such as the highest surface-area-to-volume ratio known for any rock type, long term flotation and beaching in the tidal zone, exposure to a variety of conditions, including dehydration, and an ability to absorb many potentially advantageous elements/compounds. For at least these reasons, astrobiologists have proposed pumice rafts as a possible ideal substrate for the origin of life.^[1]

Biologists have suggested that animals and plants have migrated from island to island on pumice rafts.

Jeffrey Wolynski - Stellar Metamorphosis - The Elysium Transition:

https://vixra.org/pdf/1808.0590v1.pdf

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_island

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumice_raft

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lava_balloon

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_cave

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_zone

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic_fish

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troglofauna

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subterranean_fauna

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stygofauna

Jupiter Mass Binary Objects predicted by Stellar Metamorphosis, a perplexing mystery for the standard model

"JuMBOs"

 https://www.space.com/jumbos-rogue-orion-nebula-star-systems

https://public.nrao.edu/news/astronomers-discover-jupiter-sized-objects/

https://www.theguardian.com/science/2023/oct/02/jumbos-jupiter-mass-binary-objects-discovery-orion-nebula-new-astronomical-category

https://infinitecosmology.blogspot.com/2019/

Early and Later stars and the Kelvin-Helmoltz Mechanism

Star types today are still referred to as "early" for hotter more massive stars, and "late" for cooler less massive stars.  A holdover from when Kelvin and Helmholtz understood that hot massive stars cooled and lost mass to become smaller cooler stars. Later, in an effort to force the age of the Sun to match the age of the Earth, a nuclear interpretation of the energy of the Sun was adopted, but "early" and "late" star types are still used.

The Kelvin-Helmholtz mechanism is still understood in the standard model to occur on Jupiter, Saturn and in general brown dwarfs, in the later stage, which cooled from the earlier stage of large hot stars.

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification#Spectral_types

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelvin%E2%80%93Helmholtz_mechanism

"Early" and "late" nomenclature

Stars are often referred to as early or late types. "Early" is a synonym for hotter, while "late" is a synonym for cooler.

Depending on the context, "early" and "late" may be absolute or relative terms. "Early" as an absolute term would therefore refer to O or B, and possibly A stars. As a relative reference it relates to stars hotter than others, such as "early K" being perhaps K0, K1, K2 and K3.

"Late" is used in the same way, with an unqualified use of the term indicating stars with spectral types such as K and M, but it can also be used for stars that are cool relative to other stars, as in using "late G" to refer to G7, G8, and G9.

In the relative sense, "early" means a lower Arabic numeral following the class letter, and "late" means a higher number.

This obscure terminology is a hold-over from a late nineteenth century model of stellar evolution, which supposed that stars were powered by gravitational contraction via the Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism, which is now known to not apply to main-sequence stars. If that were true, then stars would start their lives as very hot "early-type" stars and then gradually cool down into "late-type" stars. This mechanism provided ages of the Sun that were much smaller than what is observed in the geologic record, and was rendered obsolete by the discovery that stars are powered by nuclear fusion.^[69] The terms "early" and "late" were carried over, beyond the demise of the model they were based on.

The Kelvin–Helmholtz mechanism is an astronomical process that occurs when the surface of a star or a planet cools. The cooling causes the internal pressure to drop, and the star or planet shrinks as a result. This compression, in turn, heats the core of the star/planet. This mechanism is evident on Jupiter and Saturn and on brown dwarfs whose central temperatures are not high enough to undergo hydrogen fusion. It is estimated that Jupiter radiates more energy through this mechanism than it receives from the Sun, but Saturn might not. Jupiter has been estimated to shrink at a rate of approximately 1 mm/year by this process,^[1] corresponding to an internal flux of 7.485 W/m².^[2]

The mechanism was originally proposed by Kelvin and Helmholtz in the late nineteenth century to explain the source of energy of the Sun. By the mid-nineteenth century, conservation of energy had been accepted, and one consequence of this law of physics is that the Sun must have some energy source to continue to shine. Because nuclear reactions were unknown, the main candidate for the source of solar energy was gravitational contraction.

However, it soon was recognized by Sir Arthur Eddington and others that the total amount of energy available through this mechanism only allowed the Sun to shine for millions of years rather than the billions of years that the geological and biological evidence suggested for the age of the Earth. (Kelvin himself had argued that the Earth was millions, not billions, of years old.) The true source of the Sun's energy remained uncertain until the 1930s, when it was "shown" by Hans Bethe to be nuclear fusion.

for more information:  Stellar Metamorphosis 

https://vixra.org/author/jeffrey_joseph_wolynski